History chapter: Domestic tensions in the U.S. (and France) during the 1960s and early 1970s

« History chapter: Domestic tensions in the U.S.

(and France) during the 1960s and early 1970s Introduction: The United States went through major transformations during the 1960s, a period characterized by significant reforms and new political debates and divisions over social issues.

American involvement in the Vietnam War divided Americans and triggered the anti-war movement.

The period is marked by a continuing struggle for a more equal and just society: the Civil Rights Movement, its evolution as a movement, goals and methods, the rise of feminism and the changing role and status of women; as well as the fight for Gay/LGBTQ Rights.

These social issues emerged in conjunction with and further provoked the rise of conservatism and its backlash to the counterculture in the United States. I. The Division of America over the Vietnam War The United States sent combat troops to Vietnam starting in 1965 after the Gulf of Tonkin incident and Resolution in 1964.

American troop numbers increased until they peaked in 1968, and then withdrew officially in 1973.

In 1975, the communist North took over the South and united the country under communist rule. A.

Different reactions to the war 1.

Hawks vs.

doves Back in the U.S., Americans were divided into two camps: The “doves” were those who were strongly opposed to the war.

They believed that the US should withdraw.

The “hawks” were those who supported the war, and believed that the US should use more force to win.

70% of Americans disapproved of war protests in 1967, often considering them to be “acts of disloyalty” to the country. Document 1: A firefighter quoted in Working Class War by Christian G.

Appy who interviewed many Americans about their experiences with the Vietnam War, published in 1993 2.

Divisions of class and race In the US, all male citizens had to register for a random lottery that could require them to serve in the military, the draft, from ages 18-26.

They could be excluded for medical reasons or receive a college deferment if they were enrolled in university.

This was criticized as a “manipulable system” because many found ways to avoid draft by paying off doctors for medical excuses.

University students were mostly white and upper class.

This meant that the soldiers who fought in Vietnam were 80% working class.

This is why the Vietnam War was criticized as a “working-class war.” Document 2: Excerpt from the song “Fortunate Son” by Creedence Clearwater Revival, 1969 Black Americans served disproportionate numbers as combat troops.

They represented 20% of combat deaths, but only 10% of the US population.

The major civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr.

did not criticize the war at first, but by 1967 he had come out against it. Document 3: Martin Luther King’s speech, “Beyond Vietnam,” delivered April 4, 1967, at a meeting of Clergy and Laity Concerned at Riverside Church in New York City. B.

The Government Loses Support By 1967, the American population’s support for the war began to decrease and Lyndon B.

Johnson began to lose popularity. 1.

The Great Society Suffers LBJ had launched a set of programs to fight poverty starting in 1964 that was called the Great Society. But the war spending in Vietnam had a negative effect on the US economy.

The inflation rate tripled, and the government was forced to increase taxes.

On top of that, they were forced to decrease spending on Great Society programs, meaning less government assistance for the American poor. Document 4: political cartoon depicting Lyndon B.

Johnson forced to choose between the Great Society and Vietnam, by Herbert Block, with the caption “There's enough money to support both of you - Now does that make you feel better?” 2.

The Living-room War The Vietnam war became known as the US’s 1st “living-room war.” Videos of the war were watched on televised news programs every night in Americans’ homes.

These images contradicted the government’s optimistic reports.

Because there were no clear fronts in Vietnam and the Viet Cong were fighting a guerilla war with constant ambushes and booby traps, US government officials were constantly citing body counts (the number of Viet Cong soldiers killed) as evidence of American success in Vietnam.

However, news reports on television reported every night on the deaths of American soldiers, 16,000 of whom had been killed by 1967. Document 5: photograph of Americans watching violence in Vietnam on television in the 1960s, by Warren K.

Leffler This led to the development of the credibility gap, or the difference between the optimistic vision reported by the Johnson administration and the difficult reality of the situation.

More and more Americans began to have doubts about the US role in the war. Then, the Tet Offensive (surprise attack by the Viet Cong on cities in South Vietnam) turned American public opinion even further against the war.

Americans watched the violence play out on television, which widened the credibility gap for LBJ.

The mainstream media began to openly criticize the war.

Walter Cronkite, a respected journalist, famously called it a stalemate on live television.

Additionally, LBJ’s popularity decreased after the Tet Offensive.

By February 1968, 68% of Americans disapproved of his war policy.

This showed that war weariness had fully set in. C.

The Antiwar Movement 1.

The Roots of Opposition Starting in the 1960’s, college students became more socially and politically active, inspired by and getting involved in the civil rights movement, public service and more and more frequent protests against the Vietnam war.

The New Left was a youth movement that demanded changes in American society in the 1960s. It is called the “New” Left because it was new in relation to the socialist, even communist, “Old Left” of the 1930’s. Several official organizations embodied this movement.

There were the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), a New Left organization founded by Tom Hayden and Al Haber in 1960.

They were against corporations and large government, calling for a restoration of “participatory democracy” and more individual freedoms.

By 1969, the SDS had chapters on 400 American campuses.

The Free Speech Movement (FSM) was a student movement led by Mario Savio, started 1964 in UC Berkeley.

It grew out of a disagreement between students and university administration over free speech, and the students’ criticism of big business and big government.

Across the nation, there was a rise in activism on college campuses. The Vietnam war was a galvanizing issue for students.

Starting in the spring of 1965, students and professors organized “teach-ins” on college campuses as demonstrations against the war.

This was a form of civil disobedience to occupy spaces, similar to the “sit-ins” against segregation of the civil rights movement. 2.

The Growth of the anti-war movement and the chaos of 1968 The movement against the United States’ involvement in Vietnam gained supporters as the 1960s progressed.

There were multiple marches on Washington against the war in 1965.

In February 1965, the Johnson administration made changes to the rules about college deferment for the draft, requiring good grades to avoid military service.

This sparked many student protests, as well as civil disobedience at draft centers. Some went to jail for draft resistance.

Out of 200,000 draft resisters, 4,000 were imprisoned, and 10,000 fled to Canada.

These men were pejoratively called “draft dodgers”.

A protest in spring of 1967 in New York City reached 500,000 protesters and many burned their draft cards as a sign of protest. Document 6: Quote from David Harris who spent 20 months in jail after refusing the draft, quoted in The War Within by Tom Wells, 2005 Many young Americans were opposed to the war because they believed that the conflict in Vietnam was a civil war, and thus did not concern the U.S.

On top of that, the South Vietnamese government, supported by the US, was oppressive and undemocratic.

Many protesters believed that the role of the US in the world should not be as global police, and that American soldiers’ actions in the war were morally unjust. Document 7: John Kerry’s testimony to the U.S.

Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, April 23, 1971 By 1967, the Anti-war movement was intensifying and spreading beyond college campuses, as returning veterans joined protests and folk singers began writing protest songs.

1968 was an election year. Eugene McCarthy, a senator from Minnesota, announced he would run against LBJ as a Democratic anti war candidate.

He gained more and more support in the primaries.

Then, Robert F.

Kennedy, JFK’s brother and a senator from New York, declared his candidacy.

The Democratic party was now divided between 3 candidates, including the incumbent (which almost never happens). In a speech in March, LBJ announced a change in his war policy: the US would try to end war through negotiation, meaning no more escalation.

He also dropped a bombshell by announcing that he would not run again for president. Document 8: Excerpt from LBJ’s speech in March 1968 After MLK jr.

was assassinated in April 1968, followed by RFK in June,.... »